The Muslim and Viking worlds interacted in surprising and significant ways during the early medieval period, leaving a rich and sometimes shared history and forging an interconnectedness that can be studied today.
From the west, Norse raiders attacked the Muslim-ruled territory of the Iberian Peninsula, launching offensives that tested the region’s military defenses. Meanwhile, in the east, Muslim traveler Ahmad ibn Fadlan provided one of the earliest and most detailed outsider accounts of the Rus’ people, Swedish Norse traders and settlers operating along the river routes of Eastern Europe. These encounters reveal a broader observation between two cultures that were vastly different in their traditions, values, and religious practices. Examining these interactions provides a more nuanced understanding of the medieval world, demonstrating that two societies with significant differences can still have profound influences on each other.
Islam has had a great influence in the Middle East and much of Europe. The spread of the Islamic empire began with the Rashidun Caliphate, the first Islamic government after the Prophet Muhammad’s (peace be upon him) passing. The Rashidun Caliphate’s main goal was to govern the expanding Islamic community and to spread the religion to neighboring places. They demonstrated military strength with victories over the Byzantine and Persian empires, proving the Islamic empire’s leaders would not be afraid to spread its power far and wide.
The Umayyad Dynasty was the first Islamic empire, having directly followed the Rashidun Caliphate. It was established in the year 661 by Mu’awiya ibn Abi Sufyan, and, while controversial, it spread further than the Rashidun Caliphate, conquering a large portion of northwest Africa and the Iberian Peninsula, which includes modern-day Spain and Portugal. Although the Abbasid Caliphate overthrew the Umayyad Dynasty in 750, Abdarrahman I, a prince of the Umayyad family, declared himself ruler of the formerly Umayyad portion of the Iberian Peninsula in 756 and established the Umayyad Emirate of Cordoba in modern-day Spain. Muslim control of the Iberian Peninsula led to interaction with Viking people through trade and Viking raids between the 9th and the 11th centuries.
The earliest documented Viking attack on Spain was in 844. Ibn al-Khutiya and Ibn Hayyan, both Muslim historians, provide detailed accounts of the Viking raid on Seville in that same year. In Ibn al-Khutiya’s account, he mentions a story about Emir Abdarrahman II, the great-grandson of Abdarrahman I, in which he has a dream about the great mosque of Seville shortly after its construction. In his dream, he enters the mosque and finds the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him), in shrouds, dead. He told his dream to soothsayers, who told him that the divine service would cease in the mosque for some time. This came to be when the Vikings attacked and took over Seville in September of 844. They attempted to burn down the mosque but failed. Abdarrahman II prepared forces for a counterattack and was able to retake control of Seville and drive Viking attackers out of Spain in November. Following this clash, the Umayyad Emirate increased coastal defenses, which deterred a Viking attack in 854. (Steffansón 1908)
In Ibn Hayyan’s account, he writes that the attack began when a fleet of 108 Viking ships – according to a letter from the governor of Lisbon, Wahb Allah Ibn Hazm – arrived in Lisbon on Wednesday, August 20, 844. (Ibn Hayyan n.d.) The Vikings remained in Lisbon for two weeks, during which they battled the Muslims three times. They then went to Cadiz and then on to Medina-Sidonia and fought the Muslims again. A month after arriving at Lisbon, the Vikings made it to Seville, which at the time was unattended. They were able to take control of the city and spent a week looting and taking prisoners. When Muslim forces got there, they were able to defeat the Vikings in November of 844. (Ibn Hayyan n.d.) Over the next few hundred years, Vikings continued to attack the Muslim-ruled Iberian Peninsula in the mid-800s and late 900s, with one particular attack led by Bjorn Ironside mentioned by Ibn al-Khutiya. (Steffansón 1908)
In 921, Muslim diplomat and writer Ahmad Ibn Fadlan set off on a diplomatic mission from Baghdad to Volga Bulgaria, in modern-day Russia, to teach the Bulgars Islamic law and to help construct a mosque upon the Bulgars’ request. (Ibn Faḍlān 2012) From 921-922, he travelled through Persia, Central Asia, and Volga Bulgaria documenting his observations. Among his works is a description of the Rus’, who were Norsemen – primarily from Sweden – who explored
and settled in Eastern Europe from the 9th to 11th centuries. The Rus’ established trade routes
and Kievan Rus, a medieval state that laid the foundations of modern-day Russia and Ukraine. Ibn Fadlan provides a largely unbiased and detailed record of their traditions, ranging from hygienic practices to religious rituals. Ibn Fadlan also authored the only eyewitness record of a Viking burial, making his travels an interesting source when learning about Viking customs.
The Viking connection with the Islamic world led to exchanges of cultural artifacts. In a Viking grave, archaeologists discovered a silver ring buried with a woman. On the ring, there is a glass stone with the Arabic words “for Allah” engraved into it. This etching suggests this ring is of Middle Eastern origin, likely acquired either through trade or from the pillaging of a Muslim-populated area.
In short, Muslim interaction with the Vikings took many forms, from intense battles to diplomatic missions and even trade. Despite vast distances and cultural differences, their encounters left important impressions and reveal how interconnected the medieval world truly was.
References
Ibn Faḍlān, Aḥmad. 2012. Ibn Fadlan and the Land of Darkness: Arab Travellers in the Far North. Edited by Aḥmad Ibn Faḍlān. Translated by Paul Lunde and Caroline Stone. N.p.: Penguin Publishing Group.
Ibn Hayyan. n.d. In Al-Muqtabis fi Tarikh al-Andalus.
Ibn Katheer. 2012. The Caliphate of Banu Umayyah: The First Phase: Taken from Al-Bidayah Wan-nihayah. N.p.: Darussalam.
Ibn Katheer. n.d. Al-Bidayah wan-Nihayah. 20 vols.
Steffansón, Jón. 1908. In THE VIKINGS IN SPAIN: FROM ARABIC (MOORISH) AND SPANISH SOURCES, 31-46. Vol. 6. https://www.jstor.org/stable/48611867.
